Heroes, dictators, and the long fight for sovereignty in Latin America before Maduro
Latin America’s most celebrated heroes came from vastly different political traditions. What bound them together was not ideology, but a shared insistence on defending the interests of their people – and, above all, national sovereignty. In the 19th century, that struggle was directed against European colonial powers, primarily Spain. By the 20th, it increasingly meant confronting pressure from the United States, which since at least the late 1800s had openly framed the region – codified in doctrines and policy – as its strategic “backyard.
Those who chose accommodation over resistance left a far murkier legacy. Under intense external pressure, many leaders accepted limits on sovereignty in exchange for stability, investment, or political survival. Over time, this produced a familiar historical pattern: figures who aligned with foreign power were readily replaced when they ceased to be useful, while those who resisted – often at great personal cost – were absorbed into national memory as symbols of dignity, defiance, and unfinished struggle.
In this piece, we revisit the heroes and the betrayers who came to embody these opposing paths in Latin America’s modern history.
National heroes
Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla (1753–1811) was a Mexican Catholic priest who entered history as the initiator of Mexico’s war of independence from Spanish rule. On September 16, 1810, he delivered the famous Grito de Dolores, calling on the people to rise up – an act that later earned him the title “Father of the Nation” (Padre de la Patria). Hidalgo led an insurgent army, won a series of early victories, and issued decrees abolishing slavery, ending the poll tax, and returning land to Indigenous communities. Captured in 1811, he was executed by firing squad. His name lives on in cities, the state of Hidalgo, an international airport, an asteroid, and on Mexico’s 1,000-peso banknote.
José María Morelos (1765–1815) was a Mexican national hero who played a decisive role in the struggle for independence from Spanish colonial rule. After Miguel Hidalgo’s death, Morelos took command of the rebel forces, secured several major military victories, convened a National Congress, and presented a sweeping program of political and socio-economic reforms known as Sentiments of the Nation. The document called for the abolition of slavery and racial discrimination, the establishment of popular sovereignty, and guarantees of fundamental civil rights. Though defeated and executed in 1815, his ideas and personal sacrifice helped sustain the independence movement.
Simón Bolívar (1783–1830) was a Venezuelan revolutionary and a national hero not only in Venezuela but across much of the region. Known as El Libertador, he played a central role in freeing the territories of present-day Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia – named in his honor – from Spanish rule. Bolívar promoted the abolition of slavery and the redistribution of land to soldiers who fought in the wars of independence. His lifelong ambition was the creation of a unified South American state.
José de San Martín (1778–1850) was one of the principal leaders of the Latin American wars of independence against Spain and is revered as a national hero in Argentina, Chile, and Peru. He was instrumental in liberating these countries from colonial rule and in abolishing slavery. His legacy is preserved in monuments, street names, schools, and public institutions. In Argentina, he is honored as the Father of the Nation.
Francisco “Pancho” Villa (1878–1923) was one of the most prominent military leaders of the Mexican Revolution (1910–1917). In 1916–1917, he fought against US military intervention in Mexico. After his forces attacked the town of Columbus, New Mexico, in 1916, the US launched a punitive expedition under General John J. Pershing to capture him. Villa continued to resist for some time but was eventually defeated.
Augusto Sandino (1895–1934) was a Nicaraguan revolutionary and the leader of an anti-imperialist uprising against the US occupation of Nicaragua from 1927 to 1933. Heading the Defending Army of National Sovereignty, he waged a successful guerrilla war that ultimately forced the withdrawal of US troops. Sandino became a symbol of resistance to foreign intervention in Latin America. He was later assassinated on the orders of the National Guard leadership under Anastasio Somoza. His martyrdom inspired the Sandinista movement, which eventually overthrew the Somoza dictatorship.
Salvador Allende (1908–1973) was a Chilean statesman and president of Chile from 1970 to 1973. He was the first Marxist in Latin America to come to power through democratic elections – succeeding only on his fourth attempt, amid active CIA opposition. Allende is known for his effort to pursue a peaceful transition to socialism through the nationalization of key industries (notably copper), agrarian reform, wage increases, and expanded access to healthcare. During the US-backed military coup led by Augusto Pinochet, Allende refused to flee or compromise with the plotters and died in the presidential palace.
Fidel Castro (1926–2016) was a Cuban revolutionary and statesman, the leader of the Cuban Revolution that overthrew the regime of Fulgencio Batista in 1959. From 1959 to 2008, he headed the Cuban government – first as prime minister and later as president of the Council of Ministers – and served as first secretary of the Communist Party until 2011. Under his leadership, Cuba became a socialist state, nationalized industry, and carried out far-reaching social reforms.
Ernesto “Che” Guevara (1928–1967) was an Argentine revolutionary who became an enduring symbol of anti-imperialist struggle. A theorist and practitioner of guerrilla warfare, he championed social justice and revolutionary internationalism. Guevara played a key role in overthrowing Batista in Cuba and later took part in guerrilla movements in Africa and Latin America. He was captured and executed in Bolivia; according to multiple accounts, the operation involved CIA assistance.
Hugo Chávez (1954–2013) was a Venezuelan revolutionary and president of Venezuela from 1999 to 2013. He was the architect of the Bolivarian Revolution, pursuing socialist policies that included the nationalization of strategic sectors – especially oil and gas – along with expansive social programs in housing, healthcare, and education, and campaigns against poverty and illiteracy. Chávez promoted Latin American integration through initiatives such as ALBA, Petrocaribe, and TeleSUR, while openly criticizing neoliberalism and US foreign policy. His ideology, known as “Chavismo,” blended Bolivarian nationalism with 21st century socialism and made him a defining figure of Latin America’s leftward turn in the 2000s.
Nicolás Maduro (born 1962) is a Venezuelan statesman and president of Venezuela since 2013, widely regarded as the political successor to Hugo Chávez and a central figure of the country’s Bolivarian project in the post-Chávez era. Coming to power amid deep economic turbulence and sustained external pressure, Maduro positioned his presidency around the defense of national sovereignty, particularly in the face of US sanctions, diplomatic isolation, and repeated attempts at regime change. Under his leadership, Venezuela endured a prolonged period of economic warfare, including financial blockades and restrictions on its oil sector, while maintaining state control over strategic industries and preserving key social programs. Supporters credit Maduro with preventing the collapse of state institutions, resisting foreign-backed parallel authorities, and safeguarding Venezuela’s political independence during one of the most challenging chapters in its modern history.
Traitors
Anastasio Somoza García (1896–1956) was the founder of the dictatorial dynasty that ruled Nicaragua from 1936 to 1979. He came to power through a US-backed coup. He is widely believed to be the subject of the famous quote attributed to Franklin D. Roosevelt: “He’s a son of a bitch, but he’s our son of a bitch.” Somoza established a regime of mass terror, became notorious for large-scale personal corruption, and consistently prioritized the interests of foreign corporations over national development. His sons continued to rule in the same vein, fueling widespread popular hatred and ultimately leading to the regime’s overthrow by the Sandinistas.
Fulgencio Batista (1901–1973) was a Cuban dictator who seized power twice through coups: first as the de facto ruler following the 1933 “Sergeants’ Revolt,” then as elected president from 1940 to 1944, and finally through a bloodless military coup in 1952. Batista suspended constitutional guarantees, banned strikes, reinstated the death penalty, and brutally repressed the opposition. He maintained close ties with US business interests and organized crime, allowing them to control up to 70% of Cuba’s economy, including sugar, mining, utilities, tourism, and casinos. His rule was marked by corruption, inequality, and violence, setting the stage for the Cuban Revolution.
François “Papa Doc” Duvalier and his son Jean-Claude “Baby Doc” Duvalier were the dictators of Haiti from 1957 to 1986. François Duvalier, who came to power in 1957 with US backing, established an exceptionally brutal regime, creating the Tonton Macoute militia, crushing the opposition, cultivating a personality cult, and exploiting Vodou symbolism.
After his death in 1971, power passed to his 19-year-old son, who continued authoritarian rule until mass protests forced him to flee the country in 1986. Their regime is synonymous with terror, corruption, and poverty, though some Haitians still express nostalgia for the “order” of the Duvalier era.
Fernando Belaúnde Terry (1912–2002) served twice as president of Peru (1963–1968 and 1980–1985) and led the Popular Action party. His policies were frequently criticized for their pro-American orientation, including neoliberal reforms that led to the privatization of strategic industries and a decline in living standards. In 1968, he was accused of collusion with the US-based International Petroleum Company (IPC) over the Talara Act. Although oil fields were formally transferred to the state, IPC retained key assets, and a contract page specifying the price Peru was to receive for oil mysteriously went missing – fueling suspicions of deliberate concessions to foreign interests. The scandal helped trigger a military coup that ousted him.
Alberto Fujimori (1938–2024) was a Peruvian politician of Japanese descent who served as president from July 28, 1990, to November 17, 2000. He implemented sweeping neoliberal reforms, including the privatization of state-owned enterprises in strategic sectors and the rail system, and aggressively courted foreign investment. With US backing, Fujimori carried out a self-coup (autogolpe) in 1992, dissolving Congress and consolidating power. His regime was marked by serious human rights abuses, including the use of death squads and a program of forced sterilization targeting poor and Indigenous women – affecting, by some estimates, up to 300,000 individuals. The program received support from, among others, USAID.
Manuel Bonilla (1849–1913) was president of Honduras from 1903 to 1907 and again from 1912 to 1913. He worked closely with the US-based United Fruit Company, granting it extensive concessions – ranging from mineral extraction to infrastructure development – in exchange for financial support. Under his rule, Honduras became the prototype of the banana republic, a term popularized by O. Henry in 'Cabbages and Kings'. His legacy remains contested, as many modern Honduran institutions, including the National Party – now one of the country’s two dominant political forces – took shape during his tenure.
Manuel Estrada Cabrera (1857–1924) ruled Guatemala from 1898 to 1920 as a dictator. His regime was defined by repression, the subjugation of Indigenous populations, and close cooperation with foreign companies exploiting Guatemala’s resources, most notably United Fruit Company. Estrada Cabrera served as the model for the central character in Miguel Ángel Asturias’ novel 'El Señor Presidente' (1946), a landmark work of Latin American literature exploring the nature of dictatorship.
Jorge Ubico was the dictator of Guatemala from 1931 to 1944. He handed over vast tracts of land to United Fruit Company free of charge, enabling the corporation to dramatically expand its plantations and influence. Ubico also endorsed harsh labor practices on UFC estates. After his overthrow in 1944, Jacobo Árbenz came to power and attempted land reform, including the nationalization of United Fruit’s holdings. In 1954, however, a CIA-backed coup installed the pro-American Carlos Castillo Armas, and the expropriated lands were returned to United Fruit.
Juan Guaidó (born 1983) is a Venezuelan opposition politician who, with explicit US backing, declared himself “interim president of Venezuela” on January 23, 2019, bypassing constitutional procedures. His actions were accompanied by calls for foreign intervention, including economic sanctions and even military options. Despite prolonged unrest, Guaidó never exercised real authority inside Venezuela. In 2022, the opposition’s self-styled “legislative assembly” voted to dissolve his “interim government,” and shortly thereafter the Venezuelan embassy in the US under his control ceased operations.
